Management according to the reference model. Properties of models and requirements for them Specialized software for the implementation of BPM systems

reference model

reference model(English) reference model, master model) is an abstract representation of concepts and relationships between them in some problem area. On the basis of the reference model, more specific and detailed models are built, eventually embodied in real-life objects and mechanisms. The concept of a reference model is used in computer science.

Examples of Reference Models

OSI network model (Open Systems Interconnection Reference Model),
model of the Open Geospatial Consortium (English),
von Neumann architecture - reference model model with sequential computations,
State Enterprise Architecture Reference Model (eng.),
Reference Information Model HL7 (Reference Information Model, RIM HL7),
Reference Model (RM) openEHR .

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See what the "Reference Model" is in other dictionaries:

reference model- hierarchical model - [L.G. Sumenko. English Russian Dictionary of Information Technologies. M .: GP TsNIIS, 2003.] Topics information technology in general Synonyms hierarchical model EN reference model ...

reference model- etaloninis modelis statusas T sritis automatika atitikmenys: angl. mastermodel; reference model vok. Referenzmodell, n rus. reference model, f pranc. modele de référence, m; model standard, m … Automatikos terminų žodynas

reference model- 3.1.41 reference model: A structured set of interrelated ideas about an object (for example, an information system), covering this object as a whole, simplifying the breakdown of links by topic, which can be ... ... Dictionary-reference book of terms of normative and technical documentation

OSI reference model- The Open Systems Interaction Model developed by ISO in 1984. Allows you to universally describe the logic of information exchange between interconnected systems and subscribers. The complete model contains seven levels. At the bottom... ... Technical Translator's Handbook

ISO/OSI reference model- Seven-layer reference model of data transfer protocols. Defines the layers: physical, link, network, transport, session, presentation, and application. In CAN networks, only the physical, data link and application layers are usually implemented ... Technical Translator's Handbook

broadband ISDN protocol reference model- The model includes four horizontal layers (physical, ATM, ATM adaptations and upper layers) and three vertical layers (user, management and administration). Correspondence between models In ISDN and OSI is provided on the physical ... ... Technical Translator's Handbook

BOC reference model- EMWOS A model developed by the ISO, containing seven levels (layers) of protocols and designed for communication between devices in a network. [E.S. Alekseev, A.A. Myachev. English Russian explanatory dictionary of computer systems engineering. Moscow 1993] Topics ... ... Technical Translator's Handbook

reference model for open systems interaction- - Telecommunication topics, basic concepts EN ISO / OSI reference model ... Technical Translator's Handbook

protocol reference model- - [L.G. Sumenko. English Russian Dictionary of Information Technologies. M .: GP TsNIIS, 2003.] Topics information technology in general EN protocol reference modulePRM ... Technical Translator's Handbook

open systems interconnection reference model- - [L.G. Sumenko. English Russian Dictionary of Information Technologies. M .: GP TsNIIS, 2003.] Topics information technology in general EN reference model of open systems ... Technical Translator's Handbook

Books

Computer networks. In 2 volumes. Volume 1. Data transmission systems, R. L. Smelyansky. The theoretical foundations of data transmission systems, the characteristics of the main types of physical media, the methods of coding and transmission of analog and digital data, the basics of organizing ...

The proposed BPM (Business Process Management) reference model is based on a chain of the following premises:

Increasing the productivity of an enterprise as a complex system requires its rational construction, and process management is the most modern concept for such a construction;

BPM (as a discipline) offers a systematic approach to the implementation of process management;

Each process-driven enterprise has its own BPM system - a portfolio of all business processes, as well as methods and tools to guide the development, execution and development of this portfolio;

The flexibility of an enterprise's BPM system is a major factor in its success;

Specialized software platform(BPM suite) for the implementation of the enterprise BPM system is necessary, but not sufficient, since BPM occupies a special place in the enterprise architecture.

Goal: Increasing the productivity of the enterprise

To manage their performance, most enterprises use the principle feedback(Fig. 1), which allows you to adapt to the external business ecosystem by performing a certain sequence of actions:

Measuring the progress of business activities (usually such measurements are presented in the form of various metrics or indicators, for example, the percentage of returning customers);

Isolation of events important for the enterprise from the external business ecosystem (for example, laws or new market needs);

Determination of the enterprise business development strategy;

Implementation of the decisions made (by making changes to the business system of the enterprise).

In accordance with the classic recommendation of Edward Deming, author of numerous works in the field of quality management, including the famous book "Out of the Crisis", all improvements should be carried out cyclically, continuously and with a check on each cycle. The extent and frequency of these improvements depend on specific situation, but it is recommended to make such cycles sufficiently compact. Various improvements may affect different aspects of the enterprise. The question is, how can the enterprise achieve the best results in each specific case? There are two objective prerequisites for optimizing the activities of the enterprise as a whole:

Providing management with appropriate information and decision-making tools;

Ensuring that the business system of the enterprise is capable of implementing the necessary changes at the required pace.

The most modern concept of organizing the work of an enterprise is process management, in which processes and services become explicit.

Process management

The business world has long understood (see methodologies such as TQM, BPR, Six Sigma, Lean, ISO 9000, etc.) that services and processes are the backbone of most businesses. Many enterprises use process management to organize their production and business activities, as a portfolio of business processes and methods for managing them.

Process management, as a management concept, postulates the expediency of coordinating the activities of individual enterprise services in order to obtain a certain result using explicitly and formally defined business processes. At the same time, services are operationally independent functional units; an enterprise can have many elementary nanoservices, which are organized into a megaservice (the enterprise itself).

Using an explicit definition of coordination allows you to formalize the interdependencies between services. This formalization makes it possible to use various methods(modeling, automated verification, version control, automated execution, etc.) to improve business understanding (to make more right decisions) and increase the speed of development of business systems (for faster implementation of changes).

In addition to processes and services, enterprise business systems deal with events, rules, data, performance indicators, roles, documents, and so on.

To implement process management, enterprises use three popular disciplines for continuous improvement of business processes: ISO 9000, Six Sigma, and Lean production. They affect different areas of the business system of an enterprise, but they always involve collecting data about the actual work done and using some kind of business process model to make decisions (although sometimes this model is only in someone's head). At the same time, they offer different and complementary methods for determining what changes are needed to improve the functioning of an enterprise's business system.

What you model is what you do

On fig. 2 shows a generalized model of a process-controlled enterprise.

What is the main difficulty in optimizing the activities of such an enterprise? Different parts of the business system use different descriptions of the same business process. Usually these descriptions exist separately and are developed by different people, are updated at different rates, do not share information, and some of them simply do not exist explicitly. The presence of a single description of the business processes of the enterprise eliminates this drawback. This description must be explicitly and formally defined to simultaneously serve as a model for modeling, an executable program, and documentation that is easily understood by all employees involved in the business process.

Such a description is the basis of the BPM discipline, which allows you to model, automate, execute, control, measure and optimize workflows that involve software systems, employees, customers and partners within and outside the boundaries of the enterprise. The discipline of BPM considers all operations with business processes (modeling, execution, etc.) as a whole (Fig. 3).

On this moment the BPM industry has not yet developed a proper system of standards for formal business process description formats. The three most popular formats are: BPMN (Business Process Modeling Notation, a graphical representation of business process models), BPEL ( Business Process Execution Language, the formalization of the execution of interaction between Web services) and XPDL (XML Process Description Language, www.wfmc.org, specification for the exchange of business process models between different applications) were developed by different groups and for different purposes and, unfortunately, do not adequately complement each other.

The situation is aggravated by the fact that different manufacturers are behind different formats and each one is trying to “push” its solution to the market. As it has been repeatedly repeated, in such a struggle the interests of the end user are not taken into account - today there is not a sufficiently powerful organization representing the interests of the BPM end user (similar to the HTML standards group, whose success is due to the adoption of a single ACID3 test by all Web browser developers for comparison their products). The ideal situation in BPM would be a standard definition of execution semantics for a BPMN-like description of business processes. It is the standard execution semantics that would guarantee the same interpretation of business processes by any software. Additionally, such a description should allow the adaptation of the degree of description of business processes to the needs of a particular consumer (for example, the user sees a rough diagram, the analyst sees a more detailed one, etc.).

All this does not mean that BPEL or XPDL will become unnecessary - their use will be hidden, as it happens in the field of preparing electronic documents. The same electronic document can simultaneously exist in XML, PDF, PostScript, etc., but only one basic format (XML) is used to modify the document.

BPM discipline in enterprise culture

In addition to processes and services, enterprise business systems work with additional artifacts such as:

events(events) - phenomena that have occurred within and outside the boundaries of the enterprise, to which a certain reaction of the business system is possible, for example, when receiving an order from a client, it is necessary to start a service business process;

objects(data and documents objects) - formal informational descriptions of real things and people that form a business; this is information at the input and output of the business process, for example, the order service business process receives the order form itself and information about the client as input, and generates an order completion report as output;

activities(activities) - minor activities that transform objects, such as automatic activities such as validation credit card client or human activities, such as approval of a document by management;

rules(rules) - restrictions and conditions under which the enterprise operates, for example, the issuance of a loan for a certain amount must be approved by the general director of the bank;

roles(roles) - concepts representing the relevant skills or responsibilities required to perform certain actions, for example, only a top manager can sign a specific document;

audit trails(audit trails) - information about the execution of a specific business process, for example, who did what and with what result;

key performance indicators(Key Performance Indicator, KPI) - a limited number of indicators that measure the degree of achievement of goals.

Rice. 4 illustrates the distribution of artifacts between different parts of an enterprise business system. The expression "processes (as templates)" means abstract descriptions (models or plans) of processes;

the expression "processes (as instances)" refers to the actual results of executing these patterns. Typically, a template is used to create many copies (like a blank form that is copied over and over again to be filled in by different people). The expression "services (as interfaces)" means formal descriptions of services that are available to their consumers; the expression "services (as programs)" refers to the means of executing services - such means are provided by service providers.

To successfully work with the entire complex set of interdependent artifacts, any process-controlled enterprise has its own BPM system - this is a portfolio of all enterprise business processes, as well as methods and tools for managing the development, execution and development of this portfolio. In other words, the enterprise BPM system is responsible for the synergistic functioning of the various parts of the enterprise business system.

A BPM system is usually not perfect (for example, some processes may only exist on paper, and some details only “live” in the minds of certain people), but it does exist. For example, any implementation of ISO 9000 can be considered an example of a BPM system.

Improvement of the BPM system of an enterprise, in addition to purely technical aspects, should take into account socio-technical issues. An enterprise BPM system has many stakeholders, each of which solves its own problems, perceives the BPM discipline in its own way and works with its artifacts. For the successful development of an enterprise BPM system, it is necessary to pay special attention to the problems of all stakeholders and explain to them in advance how improving the enterprise BPM system will change their work for the better. It is extremely important to achieve a common understanding of all artifacts among all stakeholders.

Specialized software for implementing BPM systems

The growing popularity and great potential of BPM caused the emergence of a new class of enterprise software - BPM suite, or BPMS, containing the following typical components (Fig. 5):

Process modeling tool - graphics program to manipulate artifacts such as events, rules, processes, activities, services, etc.;

Testing tool (Process testing tool) - a functional testing environment that allows you to "execute" the process according to various scenarios;

Template repository (Process template repository) - a database of business process templates with support various versions the same template

Process execution engine;

Instance repository (Process instance repository) - a database for running and already executed instances of business processes;

Work list - an interface between the BPM suite and a user who performs some activities within one or more business processes;

Dashboard - interface for operational control over the execution of business processes;

Process analysis tool - an environment for studying the trend in the execution of business processes;

The Process simulation tool is an environment for testing the performance of business processes.

The need for interoperability between the BPM suite and enterprise software that supports other artifacts has given rise to a new class of enterprise software, the Business Process Platform (BPP). Typical BPP technologies (Fig. 6):

Business Event Management (BEM) - analysis of business events in real time and launch of relevant business processes (BEM is associated with Complex Event Processing (CEP) and Event Driven Architecture (EDA));

Business Rules Management (BRM) - explicit and formal coding of business rules that can be modified by users;

Master Data Management (MDM) - simplifying work with structured data by eliminating chaos when using the same data;

Enterprise Content Management (ECM) - management of corporate information intended for a person (a generalization of the concept of a document);

Configuration Management Data Base (CMDB) - a centralized description of the entire information and computing environment of the enterprise, used to link BPM to the information and computing resources of the enterprise;

Role-Based Access Control (RBAC) - managing access to information in order to effectively separate control and executive powers (separation of duty);

Business Activity Monitoring (BAM) - operational control of the enterprise;

Business Intelligence (BI) - analysis of the characteristics and trends of the enterprise;

Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) is an architectural style for building complex software systems as a set of universally available and interdependent services that is used to implement, execute, and manage services;

Enterprise Service Bus (ESB) is a communication medium between services within SOA.

In this way, the discipline of BPM is able to provide a single, formal and executable description of business processes that can be used in various BPM suite tools, with real data collected during the execution of business processes. However, the high flexibility of an enterprise BPM system is not automatically guaranteed after the purchase of a BPM suite or BPP - the ability of a particular BPM system to evolve at the required pace must be designed, implemented and constantly monitored. Like human health, all this cannot be bought.

BPM in Enterprise Architecture

The need to involve almost all corporate software in a single logic for improving the enterprise BPM system raises the question of the role and place of BPM in the enterprise architecture (Enterprise Architecture, EA). EA is now a well-established practice for IT departments to streamline the enterprise computing environment. EA is based on the following rules:

The current state of the enterprise computing environment is carefully documented as an as-is starting point;

The desired situation is documented as a to-be endpoint;

A long-term plan is being built and implemented to transfer the information and computing environment of the enterprise from one point to another.

All this seems to make sense, but the difference is immediately apparent from the small improvement approach that underpins process management. How to combine these two opposite approaches?

The discipline of BPM can solve the main problem of EA - to give an objective assessment of the production and economic capabilities (and not just information and computing) of what will be at the to-be point. Despite the fact that EA describes the full range of artifacts of an enterprise (its genotype), it cannot reliably say what changes in this genotype affect specific production and economic characteristics of an enterprise, that is, the phenotype of an enterprise (a set of characteristics inherent in an individual at a certain stage of development ).

For its part, the discipline of BPM structures the interdependencies between artifacts in the form of explicit and executable models (a business process is an example of interdependence between artifacts such as events, roles, rules, etc.). The presence of such executable models allows, with a certain degree of reliability, to assess the production and economic characteristics of the enterprise when the genotype of the enterprise changes.

Naturally, the more interdependencies between artifacts are modeled and the more reliable these models are, the more accurate such estimates are. Potentially, the symbiosis of the nomenclature of enterprise artifacts and the formally defined interdependencies between them produces an executable model of the enterprise at a particular point in time. If such executable models are built on the same principles (for example, krislawrence.com), then it becomes possible to compare the effect of applying different enterprise development strategies and the emergence of more systematic and predictable technologies for converting one executable model to another.

In a sense, the combination of EA+BPM can become a kind of navigator that provides guidance and practical assistance in business and IT development while implementing the overall line of the enterprise.

It's no secret that software vendors today define and develop BPM in different ways. However, the more promising path forward for BPM is end-user BPM, and the BPM reference model is the first step in creating a common understanding of BPM among all stakeholders.

The reference model proposed in the article is based on the author's practical experience in designing, developing and maintaining various corporate solutions. In particular, this model has been used to automate the annual production of more than 3,000 complex electronic products with an average product lead time of several years. As a result, the maintenance and development of this production system required several times less resources than with the traditional approach. n

Alexander Samarin ([email protected]) - Corporate Architect of the IT Department of the Government of the Canton of Geneva (Switzerland).

Process Frameworks for BPM

An approach to the implementation of business process management technologies that simplifies the implementation of BPM systems implies a clear definition of a business task and its corresponding business processes; implementation of these processes for a period of no more than three months in order to demonstrate the value of this approach; further expansion of implementation on the main business tasks. However, the main difficulty along the way is misunderstanding and lack of coordination between business and IT departments. Specialized reference models (Process Frameworks) can significantly simplify the implementation project and reduce costs.

reference model- a package of analytical and software resources, consisting of a description and recommendations for organizing a high-level business process structure, a set of attributes and metrics for evaluating the effectiveness of execution, and also software modules, created to quickly build a prototype of a business process for its subsequent adaptation to the specifics of a particular company.

Reference models help in defining and setting requirements and enable business processes to be established, they are based on industry standards and include industry experience. For typical processes, reference models can help in selecting and modeling key workflows, defining key performance indicators (KPIs) and parameters to measure performance in key areas, as well as in performance management and problem solving, root cause analysis, and exception handling.

The structure of a typical reference model includes: recommendations and description of the subject area; elements of composite user interfaces(screen forms and portlets logically connected in chains); service shells for quick implementation of access to business data; examples of typical business rules; key performance indicators and elements for their analysis; executable process models; data models and process attributes; adaptation to legislative framework and business specifics specific country; recommendations on the stages of deployment and implementation of processes. Such a set of resources will allow you to quickly adapt to the implementation of the process approach within a specific business process management system, reduce the iteration time of the development cycle, test execution and process analysis. At the same time, the maximum correspondence between the technical implementation and the existing business task is achieved.

However, as AMR Research analysts note, “technologies and methods by themselves are not capable of providing any benefits - “more” does not always mean “better”. Some companies use many different solutions, but the effectiveness of this only decreases. The literacy of the application of such technologies is important.” The reference models are based on industry standards and Software AG's experience in creating a reference model to define customer requirements. In practice, this model becomes the starting point from which clients can create the desired model.

The Process Framework, for example, for an order processing business process, includes a basic process model with action patterns for various users and roles, selected KPIs from the SCOR model (The Supply-Chain Operations Reference-model) for the process as a whole and individual stages, rules to support different processing sequences, such as by customer segment, targets for different customer segments, product types and regions, and dashboards to help you manage exceptions.

The Process Framework allows you to focus on the need and possibility of adjusting KPIs for specific customer groups and configuring them, taking into account the emergence of new products, entering new regions or market segments. This information will enable supply chain, sales, logistics and manufacturing leaders to improve control over specific activities, and IT leaders to quickly assess the actual health of the IT systems that support order processing.

Vladimir Alentsev ([email protected]) - consultant for BPM and SOA, representation Software AG in Russia CIS (Moscow).

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The article considers and substantiates the options for opening low-amplitude waterfowl gas deposits. As a result, the design features of the development of such objects were revealed. In particular, it is necessary to change the existing approach to the placement of well pads and the scheme of well clustering in such deposits. Options for drilling and completion of wells, design layouts of wells and well pads, recommendations for improving the accuracy and reliability of technological calculations on hydrodynamic models are given.

When adapting the model, a good combination of the actual and calculated using the "classic" scheme was obtained.<...>Geological gas reserves in the sector model are 3.5 bcm.<...> <...>Placement of a horizontal well in the filtration model (a) and its "segment model" (b) (impermeable<...>Placement of a well with a "bowl-shaped" profile in the filtration model (a) and its "segment model" (descent

The paper analyzes the main features of three-dimensional modeling of various geological objects, formulates requirements for three-dimensional modeling systems and software focused on its support. The most important information, which characterizes the capabilities of the computer three-dimensional object-oriented modeling system COMMODOR

The Geological Dictionary defines a model as an abstract or real representation of objects.<...>Of the above models, mathematical methods have the maximum versatility and functionality.<...>models that are now becoming prevalent, which is largely facilitated by<...>Development of three-dimensional computer models of geological environments // Vestn. Voronezh. university<...>System for creating three-dimensional models of geological objects // Vestn. Voronezh. university

The need to assess the forces of separation of structures from water-saturated soil arises when offshore gravity drilling platforms are removed from the bottom soil during their rearrangement, as well as in the event of significant wave or wind loads acting on them, causing significant tearing forces. The possibility of an experimental method for studying such complex systems is limited. When solving such problems, theoretical analysis is more preferable. However, in the known solutions of this problem, the stickiness of the soil was not taken into account. An improved computational model of the process of separation of shallow structures from water-saturated soil has been developed, taking into account the deformability of the skeleton and the stickiness of the soil. Shown, that this model allows you to evaluate the main parameters of the separation process: the magnitude of the load when the structure is separated from the ground; the duration of the application of the load required to separate the structure from the ground; separation time and intensity of the separation load at various rates of its increase. It has been established that an increase in the duration of lifting a structure by reducing the rate of increase of the tearing load leads to a decrease in the force required to tear the structure off the ground. The resulting computational model makes it possible to optimize the process of separation of a structure from water-saturated soil and can be used, for example, in operations related to the removal of offshore gravity drilling platforms from the bottom soil during their rearrangement

The proposed refined calculation model of the separation process makes it possible to determine the main parameters of the process<...>soil deconsolidation that occurs when a structure is torn off the ground can be described using the "basic calculation model<...>The proposed calculation model of the process of detachment of a structure from water-saturated soil makes it possible to evaluate:<...>Thus, the developed calculation model of the process of separation of a shallow structure from the ground

The article contains methodological sections and is intended for trained readers who have initial experience with the Actor Pilgrim simulation system, as well as those who are familiar with publications in the journal Applied Informatics.

model trace mode.<...>which complicates the model.<...> <...>Modernization and execution of models Modernization of models .<...>The Run Model button simply transfers control to the model's .exe file.

MARKET STRUCTURES OF THE REGIONAL AIC ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES

Moscow: ALL-RUSSIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS, LABOR AND MANAGEMENT IN AGRICULTURE

The purpose of the study was to develop scientific and methodological foundations for the formation of market structures in the regional agro-industrial complex.

The development of a model of market structures was carried out by the method of organizational and economic design<...>LLC "Agency Book-Service" 4 the logic of their study. analysis and design, and, finally, the typical models themselves<...>Practical value for production have "methodological developments, recommendations, models of market<...>reveals the methodological provisions for determining the demand for products and agricultural raw materials, developing models<...>Lindsay writes in The Market: A Microeconomic Model that...

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LOCATION OF SUGAR BEET PRODUCTION UNDER CONDITIONS OF DEVELOPMENT OF INTENSIVE TECHNOLOGY ABSTRACT DIS. ... CANDIDATE OF ECONOMIC SCIENCES

M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN AND THE ORDER OF LABOR RED BANNER AGRICULTURAL ACADEMY NAMED AFTER K. A. TIMIRYAZEV

sugar output per hectare and their reliability was obtained by the following correlation-regression model<...>-h. labor, rub. "All factors included in the model are significant at B=0.01 and 0.05 significance levels.<...>The coefficient of determination indicates that / that the factors included in the model explain the 65* "variations<...>growing beets in the southwestern zone. . »*. : ... "-." " * / " *" Eg:it:lsh:o-g,at"o:atpches1saya model<...>transport ^ and "perera-Y" RAW BOTTLE. . " with "*G" , 4 H*1/ ," ".\.\ ;" X" models

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Political Science Guidelines

"Political culture: models and reality" - M., 1990 Rukavishnikov V., Khalmyan L., Esther P.<...>Political Culture: Theory and National Patterns. Rep. ed. Gadzhiev K.S. M., 1994.-260s.<...>"Civilized model" of international relations and its implications. // Polis.-1995.-S.70-75.<...>Authoritarianism and democracy: two models.// Polis.-1996.-№6.-p.38-54. Morozova L.A.

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Theory and methodology of cycling. Section 4. "Teaching the technique of cycling, improving technical skills" a course of lectures on the theory and methodology of cycling for students of RSUPEKSMiT, studying in the specialty 032101.65 "Physical culture and sports"

M.: RGUFKSMiT

Cycling is one of the most rapidly developing sports in the world, the most popular and massive summer Olympic sport in our country. The need to introduce the course "Theory and Methods of Cycling" is due to favorable natural climatic conditions for cycling, ease of mastering the movements of a cyclist, no need for special expensive sports facilities designed for cycling, economic availability of cycling equipment. These factors, combined with the highest health-improving effect compared to other physical culture means of motor activity, allowed the bicycle to become a national means of improving the health of Russians, including the disabled, practically throughout their entire lives - from 3-4 years to 80-90 years of age. The educational material "Course of lectures" on the theory and methodology of cycling is built in accordance with the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education of the cycle of special disciplines based on the curriculum in the specialty 032101.65 "Physical Culture and Sports", specialization "Theory and Methods of the Chosen Kind of Sports" . The purpose of the course of lectures is to organize independent work of students to master the theoretical material of the discipline "Theory and Methods of Cycling". The objectives of the course of lectures are to disclose the content of the academic discipline "Theory and Methods of Cycling", to provide students with the most relevant information on the academic discipline "Theory and Methods of Cycling", as well as to manage the cognitive activity of students.

skills of independent thinking, development of abilities for introspection and self-control, orientation to the "model<...>These are "cyclist bicycle", "athlete - bicycle", "racer bicycle" and, finally, "reference system<...>The study of hypoxia in the skeletal muscle on a mathematical model // Special and Clinical Physiology

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INTENSIFICATION OF WORK OF BIOLOGICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT EQUIPMENT USING ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS ABSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTORS OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

Moscow: ALL-RUSSIAN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF BIOLOGICAL INDUSTRY OF RUSSIA ACADEMY

Purpose and tasks of the work. The purpose of the research was to develop the theoretical and applied foundations of technologies and methods for intensifying the work of biological treatment facilities using electromagnetic fields, which make it possible to increase their technical and economic efficiency and the environmental safety of treated wastewater for open water bodies. To achieve this goal, it was necessary to solve the following tasks: to study the kinetics of processes associated with the mechanism of extracellular destruction of organic compounds and create a model for the biochemical breakdown of complex organic substrates; to identify patterns of influence of electromagnetic activation of the sludge mixture on the oxidative capacity of the biocenosis and the value of the silt index; to develop a new reagentless water disinfection technology, to test and study the conditions for its technical implementation; to develop and investigate the technology of deep removal of polyphosphates, to study the effect of electromagnetic activation on the efficiency of the process;

General regularities are noted in a number of mathematical models of systems for biological wastewater treatment.<...>Models based on the two-phase theory of pollution removal are analyzed.<...>Copyright JSC "Central Design Bureau "BIBCOM" & LLC "Agency Book-Service" 21 Mathematical model The technique is based<...>Tomsk, 2003.S. 48-55 Patents and utility models: 28. Patent No. 2126772 of 27.02.99.<...>Certificate for "Utility model" No. 2001115272/20 (016344) dated 04.07. 2000

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Guidelines for preparing for practical exercises in the academic discipline "Innovation Infrastructure" in the specialty: 220601 - Innovation Management

Publishing house PSUTI

Guidelines for preparing for practical classes in the discipline "Innovation Infrastructure" were prepared at the Department of "Electronic Commerce", are intended for students of all forms of education of the specialty 220601 - Innovation Management and are a guide to their implementation by students. They contain a set of questions, tasks covering the main theoretical and applied aspects of innovation management in a company, enabling students to apply their theoretical knowledge, the ability to select, systematize, analyze and generalize materials in conditions of incomplete information and constant changes in real problematic market situations.

What are the main models of innovative development developed?<...>Olina; Keynesian models of dynamic development (R. Harrod and E.<...>Unlike the Western model (market plus democracy), the Asian model was initially built on the leading<...>What models of organizational support for R&D results are used?<...>Models of organizational support for R&D results Three main models of organizational support are characterized.

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REGULARITIES AND MODELS OF WATER MIGRATION OF IONS IN SOILS OF ARID AND SEMIARID AREAS ABSTRACT DIS. ... DOCTORS OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES

M.: MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN, ORDER OF OCTOBER REVOLUTION AND ORDER OF LABOR RED BANNER STATE UNIVERSITY NAMED AFTER M. V. LOMONOSOV

The purpose of the work was to develop the theoretical foundations and methods for studying patterns; water migration of ions in soils of arid and semi-arid regions using mathematical modeling in connection with topical issues of soil-reclamation forecasting, soil protection and increasing the bioproductivity of agrocenoses.

actions of processes and factors General methods of building models Meaning of some model parameters<...>t Building a complex migration model Finding parameters Checking the model and assessing the quality Computational<...>"G."-*"* "; *b""/"""J;":- * .<...>" . > ; "I Model .B+R.<...>Development of Anna's Christmas trees model YVNA".;;.

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Fundamentals of physical education at the university studies. allowance

Publishing house PSUTI

The material of the manual allows you to systematize and deepen knowledge on the basics of the theory of the discipline "Physical Culture and Sports". It is supposed in a brief form to familiarize with the basic concepts and terms that should increase the level of physical education. The textbook was developed in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Education for the profile of bachelor and specialist in all areas.

Since it was said about the beauty of the male figure, we will give examples of the standards of the female figure.<...>So, the standard of the female figure in 2980 BC. was the Venus of Willendor, the symbol of fertility.<...>Central Design Bureau "BIBKOM" OJSC & "Agency Book-Service" LLC 1880 ideal woman of the 19th century "corsage model<...>Today, elite sport is so far the only model of activity in which outstanding record holders<...>Mental labor Human activity to transform the conceptual model formed in his mind

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#11 [Oilfield Engineering, 2017]

Technique and technology of development, production, collection, transportation, treatment of oil and gas, methods of reservoir stimulation and enhanced oil recovery, current equipment overhauls.

The well model consists of three "connections" of cells of the hydrodynamic model with the well model and three<...>These models are shown in fig. 4.<...>Schematic representation of various reservoir models in a horizontal section: a - homogeneous model; b<...>The average coefficient of multiple correlation for models by group increased compared to models<...>models .

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№5 [Applied Informatics / Journal of Applied Informatics, 2013]

The journal "Applied Informatics" is the successor of the collection of the same name, published since 1981 by the publishing house "Finance and Statistics". It highlights current trends in the development of applied informatics. Most of the materials are devoted to applied issues: the application information technologies in such areas as electronic marketing and commerce, training of IT specialists, information systems, mathematical and computer modeling, information security. Since 2006, the journal has been a founding member of a number of international and all-Russian conferences, and also provides organizing committees with information support in holding such events. The publication is included in the List of Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation.

domain of e-government architecture, the development and constant refinement of the so-called reference<...>The reference models noted are, in fact, specific guidelines that provide general<...>As a result, information was supplied to the receptors about the difference between the reference frequency of oscillations and that recorded in<...>This task is also relevant for modelscreated according to the "Standard model design" option, and especially for models<...>Modernization and execution of models Modernization of models .

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Practical thinking: theoretical problems and applied aspects [monograph]

The monograph is a generalization of research and theoretical developments of the team of the Yaroslavl scientific school, devoted to the problem of practical thinking. The work has two main sections. The first section is devoted to theoretical and research problems of practical thinking. It consists of four parts: "Practical thinking in the context of general theoretical problems of psychological science." “Practical thinking in the interaction of the subject with the world”, “Transformative orientation of practical thinking” and “The subject of practical thinking. Experience and construction of the situation. The second section, presented in the fifth part of the monograph "Methodological aspect of studying and diagnosing the features of practical thinking", includes practice-oriented developments of the team in the field of research and diagnostics of the features of practical thinking.

The main function of this model, obviously, is to implement synthesis blanks, reference solutions<...>This fact may indicate a larger repertoire of standards (models) they have for this situation.<...>Perhaps this is also due to the small variety of the alphabet of situation standards.<...>adequate measurement standards; e) weakness of regulatory mechanisms.<...>Based on the method of building models - updating the relevant standards for situational and analysis

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Algorithmization of applied problems studies. allowance

M.: FLINTA

The materials of the manual are prepared on the basis of the results of the research conducted by the author and theoretical generalizations on the algorithmization of applied problems solved on electronic computers. Due attention is paid to the provisions and recommendations of a methodological nature, so that the materials of the manual can serve as a methodological guide for the reader's independent work on the practical development, description of algorithms in the interests of their software implementation.

<...>analytical model.<...>models .<...>Stochastic models, in turn, are divided into random state models and randomized models.<...>models .

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No. 4 [Molecular genetics, microbiology and virology, 2013]

Founded in 1983. Editor-in-chief of the journal - Kostrov Sergey Viktorovich - Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Professor, Doctor of Biological Sciences, Director of the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The journal covers the most topical theoretical and applied problems of molecular genetics of pro- and eukaryotic organisms, molecular microbiology and molecular virology. The journal assigns an important role to studies of the genetic apparatus of microorganisms, research on the forms of genetic exchange, genetic mapping of pathogenic pathogens, elucidation of the structure and functions of extrachromosomal factors of heredity and migrating genetic elements, and theoretical studies of the mechanisms of genetic regulation. Publishes the results of studies of the molecular and genetic bases of the eukaryotic cell, the functioning of chromosomes and chromatin, the nature of genetic changes during malignant transformation and a number of hereditary diseases. The pages of the journal cover the development of the molecular foundations of virology, including the issues of integration of viral and cellular genomes, issues of persistence.

Despite the fact that mice do not suffer from whooping cough and are not an adequate experimental model for humans<...>, today the "mouse model" is used to study some of the characteristics of the infectious<...>The experimental model proposed by us can be used not only to study the dynamics of accumulation

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No. 6 [Geology, geophysics and development of oil and gas fields, 2012]

When building a hydrodynamic model (as the final model used in field development<...>A characteristic feature of the RPP models obtained on the basis of the Purcell model is their good convergence<...>Two models of a hydrocarbon deposit in a structure complicated by a fault: a - traditional model -<...>The second version of the alternative model of the Usinskoye field is a plicative model based on<...>, similar to the well-known model P.

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World economy

industrialization models. 6.<...>What is the difference between the economic model of the EU countries and the American model? 19.<...>What are the features of the Japanese economic model? 21.<...>Differences between the American economic model and the Western European one. 2.<...>Highly developed countries have switched to an innovative development model.

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No. 4 [Automation, telemechanization and communications in the oil industry, 2016]

Development and maintenance of measuring instruments, automation, telemechanization and communications, process control systems, information and information systems, CAD and metrological, mathematical, software

Version "C" for wells 7 In-line moisture meters models L and F (model F) (Phase Dynamics inc.,<...>Flow velocity 0.7…4.6 m/s 8 RFM WCM moisture meters models LC, HC and FC (model FC) (Roxar Flow Measurement<...>Operating models are hydrodynamic models of the "inflow-lift-network" class, implemented on simplified<...>Mathematical model .<...> Keywords: optimal control; integrated model; operating model; intellectual

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No. 2 [Geology, geophysics and development of oil and gas fields, 2014]

Methods for a comprehensive assessment of the oil and gas content of territories, calculation of reserves; issues of assessing the influence of geological and physical factors on the indicators of field development.

A spatio-temporal model of the formation and distribution of GNGS in the subdomain oil and gas condensates has been completed,<...>Having adopted the injection model of the process of the deposit formation, it is possible to calculate several options<...>In the course of the research, sedimentological models of the D4 formation of neighboring fields were analyzed<...>The prediction of thicknesses and properties based on the constructed model was subsequently confirmed by a drilled well.<...>Keywords: geology; sedimentology; seismic exploration; sedimentation model.

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No. 6 [Intellectual Property Exchange, 2010]

Economic and legal problems of high technology transfer, creation and use of intellectual property, regulations, court decisions.

scenario B2, based on traditional assumptions about the impact of technological progress in the model<...>As follows from Fig. 5, in the traditional model, carbon emissions from energy use and industry<...>So far, the device exists only in the form of a model, but the most important Russians are already interested in it<...>Dependence of the excess heat capacity ΔСV on the temperature and grain size of the model nanocrystal Copyright<...>Type of result of intellectual activity (invention, utility model, industrial design, topology

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No. 11 [Posev, 1988]

Socio-political magazine. Published since November 11, 1945, published by the publishing house of the same name. The motto of the magazine is "God is not in power, but in truth" (Alexander Nevsky). The periodicity of the journal has changed. Initially published as a weekly publication, for some time it was published twice a week, and from the beginning of 1968 (number 1128) the magazine became a monthly one.

In 1974, the Pinochet regime adopted the "Chicago model" of economic development based on<...>free trade and enterprise and is the opposite of the socialist model<...>"Copying the Western model of the market based on private property is fundamentally unacceptable for<...>socio-economic, political, personal rights and freedoms, then the totalitarian regime (in the current, "Leninist" model

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Geometrodynamics program for the development of algorithms for constructing analytical solutions of equations describing two-dimensional and three-dimensional motions of continuous media: monograph

Russian Federal Nuclear Center - All-Russian Research Institute of Experimental Physics

The monograph presents in a concise form a new approach to the geometrization of a physical theory and some of its applications. It is a variant of the unified field theory based on a conformally invariant generalization of the general theory of relativity. Due to the conformal (scale) symmetry, the method is suitable for application not only in cosmology, but also in ordinary-scale physics, as well as in microphysics.

from the point of view, this is quite enough, since in Nature there are no absolute dimensional values, standard<...>In other words, the laws of Nature and the results of experiments should not depend on what scales (standards)<...>One-dimensional model of the original 2-dimensional surface.<...>for the Ising model and the Q-state Potts model), states that the partition functions of the spin models<...>State Model The state model proposed by Kaufman eliminates all intersections of a given link.

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No. 3 [Russian Foreign Economic Bulletin, 2006]

The stock market is less developed compared to the outsider model: its Copyright OJSC "Central Design Bureau "BIBCOM" &<...>Under the conditions of the insider model, it is almost impossible to carry out a hostile takeover.<...>In countries with an insider model, the role of the stock market in the redistribution of free Money <...>The same model is used by Sina.com, the leading Internet portal in China.<...>Formation of an open model for the development of the region.

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No. 6 [USA and Canada: economics, politics, culture, 2018]

The liberal economic model is confirmed by the fact that in recent years the share of private industries<...>"Ironically, precisely because the danger that threatens the world from the model of domination, today<...>And for the first time in the history of the human race, the partnership model may be the only condition<...>To search for the most adequate models of modernization, the Japanese went to developed countries for experience.<...>However, the process of adapting the American financial model to Japanese conditions was not easy.

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No. 8 [Russian Foreign Economic Bulletin, 2007]

The journal, founded by the All-Russian Academy of Foreign Trade in 1996, is an authoritative scientific, analytical and educational monthly publication in the field of foreign economic activity. On the pages of the magazine, topical problems of the world economy and international relations are touched upon, the most important issues for the state of Russia's export-import policy, and increasing its competitiveness in various commodity markets are discussed. Among the authors of articles published in the journal are well-known scientists and highly competent specialists from many sectors of the economy in various regions and cities of Russia. The magazine has actually become the center of attraction for foreign economic ideas throughout the country.

reforms, including the model of the Washington Consensus of the International Monetary Fund.<...>model are, from our point of view, the most realistic.<...>The components of this model are contained in scheme 1.<...>The most practically applicable are the binomial method and the Black-Scholes model.<...>In 1997, the creators of the model were awarded the Nobel Prize.

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No. 1 [Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine, 2011]

To solve the tasks set, we used a model of the formation of long-term adaptation in<...>The neuro-protective effect was studied in cell cultures of cerebellar granules of 7-day-old rats in the K+ model.<...>Here and in fig. 2, 3: I - control, II - model, III - model + postnatal treatment, IV - model + afobazole<...>, 1 mg/kg, V - model + afobazole, 10 mg/kg.<...>The Krushinsky-Molodkina (KM) rat line is widely used as a model for convulsive states.

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No. 2 [Problems of social hygiene, health care and the history of medicine, 2012]

A model for providing medical care to patients with back pain has been developed, the implementation of which allows<...>Two models of general medical practices working in rural areas should be distinguished: 1st - GPs serve adults<...>Such a model was the GP of the Belinsky rural municipality, where the doctor serves the adult and child population,<...>The choice as a model of WFP without ascribed FAP was carried out in order to standardize labor and further<...>Therefore, there cannot be a single WUA model that is equally applicable to any rural area.

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No. 12 [Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine, 2011]

The journal contains the planned work of scientific research institutions in the form of brief original reports on topical issues of biology and medicine, containing new significant scientific results. Editor-in-Chief Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences V.A. Tutelyan Headings of the journal “Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine”: - Physiology - General pathology and pathological physiology - Biophysics and biochemistry - Pharmacology and toxicology - New drugs - Immunology and microbiology - Allergology - Genetics - Virology - Oncology - Ecology - Nanotechnology - New biomedical technologies - Experimental methods - clinic - Biogerontology - Primatology - Sports medicine - Experimental biology - Morphology and pathomorphology - Methods.

618 Effects of heparin on synaptic activity in a model<...>....................... 623 Inotropic and chronotropic effects of ischemic postconditioning on the model<...>There is no generally accepted model of PI in vitro.<...>The purpose of this work is to evaluate the inotropic and chronotropic effects of different models of heart IP in vitro.<...>To estimate the time (t*) for the association of chiral molecules into an associate, we used the cellular model

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The main financial instruments for regulating innovative entrepreneurship studies. allowance

The theoretical and methodological aspect of the intellectual property of business entities is considered in detail. It is intended for students, masters, graduate students of economic areas and specialties of all forms of education.

Peculiarities of legal protection and use of utility models Legal protection of utility models is carried out<...>The owner of the exclusive right to a utility model provided by a utility model certificate<...>, and the employer in the case of service creation of utility models .<...>utility model to others.<...>invention, utility model patent, industrial design patent.

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No. 6 [Legality, 2012]

As you know, in the last decade and a half, legislation has been actively updated in Russia, on some issues - radically, many legal institutions are undergoing significant changes, new ones are being introduced. During this time, many discussion articles have been published on the pages of the journal about the place and role of the prosecutor's office in our society and state, devoted to judicial reform, the new Code of Criminal Procedure, jury trials, the reform of the investigation in the prosecutor's office, etc. But this has never been to the detriment of materials about the exchange experience and comments on legislation, complex issues of law enforcement practice. Essays on well-known prosecutors are also regularly published. The journal has a well-established team of authors, which includes well-known scientists and law enforcement officers from almost all regions of Russia who are passionate about their cause.

Kniga-Service» THEORY AND PRACTICE OF PROSECUTOR’S SUPERVISION 17 At first glance, the model chosen by the legislator<...>appellate instance in the courts of general jurisdiction, I would like to note that the so-called “ideal model

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Religion of Dmitry Merezhkovsky. "Neo-Christian" Doctrine and Its Artistic Embodiment monograph

M.: FLINTA

The monograph is a systematic study of the religious, philosophical and artistic heritage of D.S. Merezhkovsky - one of the brightest "spiritual leaders" of the literary and philosophical process at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. The author analyzes the essence and main components of the "non-Christian" doctrine of Merezhkovsky and builds a holistic concept of his work based on the definition of a single "picture of the world" of the writer and thinker. The evaluation of the specifics of the original heretical religion of the "Third Testament of the Holy Spirit" verified in the work, created by Merezhkovsky and the figures of the so-called "new religious consciousness" in opposition to the traditional Orthodox Christian dogma, allows us to clearly demonstrate where the "non-traditional" search for God leads. In general, the study contributes to a significant refinement and correction of the prevailing ideas about religious and artistic modernism in Russia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries.

Matic models of sexual behavior (therefore, the "gippius-centrism" of the researcher is not accidental).<...>serves as material for the development of an "ideal model" of the Gnostic system.<...>It is she who marks the "earth sex" in its reference expression, it is, as it were, the apotheosis of such a sex.<...>norms of ascesis, and he, in turn, as an ideal type of Orthodox saint, was a kind of standard<...>But in this case, the preference in choosing Catholic saints as a standard

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Additional education of students as a career prospect: from the student bench to the chair of the head II Interuniversity. seminar on problems education: Sat. scientific articles

The collection contains science articles interuniversity seminar on the problems of additional education "Additional education of students as a career perspective: from the student bench to the chair of the head", held on the basis of the Faculty of Additional Education of the Kazan National Research Technological University in October-December 2012.

3) evaluation of the effectiveness of the model.<...>; determination of the theoretical prerequisites for the development of the model .<...>achieving success over the failure avoidance model.<...>Personnel management models: research, development, implementation / E.<...>taking place in society in recent decades are changing stereotypes of femininity and masculinity, standards

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No. 1 [Problems of social hygiene, health care and the history of medicine, 2012]

Founded in 1994. The editor-in-chief of the journal is Schepin Oleg Prokopyevich - Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Doctor of Medical Sciences, Professor, Scientific Director of the National Research Institute of Public Health of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences. The journal covers theoretical issues of social hygiene, the main directions of the formation of public health and medical and social assistance, issues of economics, scientific organization of labor, sanitary statistics, history of medicine and health care. Publishes articles on new forms and methods of work of medical and anti-epidemic health care institutions in organizing medical and sanitary services for the urban and rural population. The journal publishes materials on the methods and results of studying the social conditions of life and health of the population. It reflects the state of healthcare, issues of organization and activities of medical institutions in foreign countries, articles devoted to the design and equipping of medical institutions are placed. The development of medical science and health care is widely covered, important historical dates are noted, the activities of scientific societies are published, information about various conferences and meetings is published.

Copyright JSC "Central Design Bureau "BIBCOM" & LLC "Agency Book-Service" 4 The most complete implementation of the model<...>building and strengthening their national public health institutions through different models <...>Mechanisms based on this model are successfully used to solve a wide range of problems.<...>various sectors of society. Similar models are used independently of each other in different areas of the market.<...>In this case, the health care system is based on a "three-level" model: 1) a person who needs

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Organizational behavior: a course of lectures

The course of lectures on the academic discipline "Organizational Behavior" is intended for students of the Presidential Management Training Program "Management in Business". Includes five main topics of lectures and a work program of the academic discipline. Can be used by students of the program "Master of Business Administration" - MBA.

Models of Organizational Behavior Criteria Authoritarian Model Guardianship Model Supportive Board<...>Models of organizational development There are at least ten models of organizational development created in different<...>This model is an evolutionary teleological model of organizational development, considering the specified<...>Copyright JSC "Central Design Bureau "BIBCOM" & LLC "Agency Book-Service" Model "7 S" (authors of the model 7S T.J. Pitere<...>What EP models are implemented in the organization where you work? What does the OP model depend on?

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<...> <...> <...> <...>

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Cultural initiatives materials 50 Vseros. with international participation of scientific conf. young researchers (Chelyabinsk, April 5, 2018)

Materials of the 50th All-Russian Scientific Conference of Young Researchers include articles by graduate students, undergraduates, students, reflecting the current state of problems in the sociocultural sphere.

technology, as an educational business game, allows you to create both activity and behavioral models - standards<...>The concept of "model", according to E.I.<...>Chekhov, organized according to different syntactic models: a model of a two-part sentence: “Time went to<...>In cognitive linguistics, the internal form acts as a quasi-stereotype or standard of a certain situation.<...>set, structure and dynamic status of ecological systems, the Taganay National Park is a benchmark

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The speed, positioning accuracy and energy efficiency of the elevator drive largely depend on the dynamic properties of the elevator drive as a control object, which change in accordance with the degree of its workload. To compensate for changes in the dynamic properties of the drive, self-tuning systems are used automatic control with the reference model. The paper considers various designs of analytical searchless self-adjusting systems with a reference model and presents the results of studying these systems with various reference models. It is shown that the use of an inertia-free optimal reference model makes it possible to increase the accuracy of the execution of a given elevator movement program and its energy efficiency.

model and the results of the study of these systems with various reference models are presented.<...>The monitor screen (Fig. 2) shows that the transient process in the reference model and in the object 1.<...>On fig. Figure 3 shows another version of building a self-adjusting system with a reference model.<...>The reason for the lag is the inertia of the chosen reference model.<...>Calculation and design of analytical self-adjusting systems with reference models.standard indicator.<...>In other cases, there are no reference classes, and the ordering is carried out directly according to<...>The following minerals are accepted as a standard for each gradation in order of increasing hardness: 1

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The problem of synthesis of a multichannel system with self-adjustment according to the reference model for centralized control of the movement of an autonomous underwater vehicle is solved. The stability conditions for the self-tuning process are obtained, taking into account the dynamic mutual influence and kinematic relationships between all control channels of the apparatus in the presence of parametric non-stationarity of its complete nonlinear mathematical model. To reduce the value of the self-adjustment signal, its amplitude is formed as a function of the coordinates and setting signals. The developed system provides high quality control of an underwater vehicle with significant variations in its parameters.

V. 51, No. 5<...>Key words: control system, autonomous underwater vehicle, reference model, self-tuning.<...>Synthesis of the law of self-adjustment according to the reference model.<...>are set in such a way as to ensure the stability of the solution xm(t), and hence the entire reference model<...>Adaptive control with a reference model under external disturbances // Autom. 2004. No. 5. S. 77–90. 8.

The results of solving the problem of constructing an adaptive control system with a non-linear reference model for a non-stationary dynamic plant with a non-linear actuator are presented. To analyze the dynamic features of a non-linear non-stationary control system, the method of point transformations is used. The results of analysis and mathematical modeling of the control system under consideration with the adaptation loop disabled are given.

Trapeznikova RAS, Moscow) FEATURES OF THE DYNAMICS OF AN ADAPTIVE CONTROL SYSTEM WITH A NONLINEAR REFERENCE MODEL<...>Keywords: control system, dynamic object, control algorithm, reference model, adaptive<...>Introduction At present, adaptive systems with a reference

Adaptive control of a non-minimum-phase scalar object of the second order with the provision of specified characteristics of the transient process [Electronic resource] / Kruglov // Scientific Bulletin of the Novosibirsk State Technical University. - 2016 .- No. 4 .- P. 33-53 .- Access mode: https: //website/efd/610274

Abstract—The problem of designing a control system that provides a given transient response of a closed loop including a scalar non-minimum-phase object of the second order (initially linear and stationary) with a positive zero of its transfer function under conditions of a priori uncertainty about its parameters and external perturbation is considered. The features of the transient response of such an object and its control are considered. As the given characteristics of the transient process, the amplification factor, the regulation time, the degree of overshoot, the given level of the "failure" of the transient characteristic are used. As an adaptive control method, a scheme with an identifier and an implicit reference model and simplified adaptability conditions is used. At the same time, such a control law is constructed so that, by changing the above characteristics, it does not change the unstable zero of the transfer function of the object. It is shown that the conditions of adaptability are reduced to the convergence of the residual of the identification of the algorithm that delivers estimates of unknown parameters in the current time. Conditions for the convergence of the identification residual in a closed loop of the control system are given. As a result, to achieve adaptability, it is not required to obtain accurate estimates of unknown parameters, which greatly simplifies the adaptability conditions and the speed of its achievement. To eliminate the “dip” of the transient response, it is proposed to use an “exponential” control of a special type instead of a stepwise given control. It is built on the scores supplied by the identifier. It is shown that this approach can be used for different cases: when the plant is stable or not, stationary or non-stationary with a limited rate of change of parameters, or even a nonlinear plant with linearly entering unknown parameters. Other generalizations are obvious. Examples are given

As an adaptive control method, a scheme with an identifier and an implicit reference model is used<...>models ; zadu - given control in the form of a step action; m1 m0 m, a a b – standard parameters<...>model (10), and at the end of the transition period - as a standard (4).<...>We integrate the first equation (1) and (4) over the interval from 0t to t (the initial conditions of the reference model<...>The structure of the control system is quite simple and contains an implicit reference model (4), an algorithm for the current

The article discusses the issues of methodology for assessing the level of professionalism of marine specialists, offers recommendations for the formation of a portrait of a professional and measurements of the methodology for assessing the level of professionalism

In this regard, the issue of developing models and algorithms for constructing the standard of "professional<...>Model of the standard "professional".<...>, qualities and their correct interpretation into the standard of the “professional” model.<...>Since the initial data for the formation of the standard of the “professional” model are the assessments of experts,<...>This structure makes it possible to avoid subjectivity and one-sidedness in the construction of the standard model of the “professional

ROBUST TRACKING SYSTEM FOR THE REFERENCE SIGNAL OF A LINEAR DYNAMIC OBJECT WITH DISTRIBUTED DELAY [Electronic resource] / Imangazieva // Bulletin of the Astrakhan State Technical University. Series: Management, Computer Engineering and Informatics.- 2015 .- No. 4 .- P. 8-14 .- Access mode: https://site/efd/504803

A robust control system for an object is proposed, in which dynamic processes are described by a linear equation with a distributed delay. In addition, the control algorithm for objects with a delay in state, proposed by the author earlier, is considered with the aim of using it in the development of a robust control system with a distributed delay. To solve the problem of tracking the reference signal, a specially selected auxiliary circuit and observers of variables are used, which makes it possible to ensure the fulfillment of the control goal with a given dynamic accuracy. A numerical example of a reference signal tracking system is given. linear object with distributed delay under the action of perturbations, simulation was carried out in Simulink Matlab. The simulation results confirmed the theoretical conclusions and showed the operability of the proposed control system under conditions of permanent external and parametric disturbances. Mathematical models, including distributed delay, are used in such fields of science as biology, neurology, physics, and economics. Taking into account the distributed delay makes it possible to make the models of these systems correspond to reality, which determines the relevance of the result obtained.

To solve the problem of tracking the reference signal, specially selected auxiliary<...>model for a linear dynamic plant with distributed delay.<...>The required quality of transient processes in the object is given by the equation of the reference model 0 () () ()<...>models .<...>Tracking error transients)(te , control object outputs)(ty and reference model )(tym

The problem of constructing a robust controller for a control system of a non-affine input a priori indeterminate non-stationary dynamical plant is considered. With the help of simulation modeling, the quality of the constructed control system is illustrated.

The desired dynamics of the plant (1)–(4) is determined similarly using an explicit reference model of the form<...>(an analogue of the main reference model ), which in Laplace images will be written as yM (s) = L T<...>models) .<...>model having main and auxiliary outputs.<...>Robust control system for an affine object in a scheme with two reference models // Informatics and aircraft systems and according to the MMANA program for a reference model.<...>resistance from the reference model is minimal.<...>, from the values of the reference model does not exceed 7%.

Methodological bases for the analysis and certification of the levels of maturity of the processes of software projects in conditions of fuzziness [monograph]

M.: Hotline– Telecom

The methodological foundations of the analysis and certification of the levels of maturity of the processes of a software project are outlined, including a modern approach to the construction of a modern methodology for the certification of software project processes in conditions of fuzzy initial data. A model and algorithms are proposed for solving semi-structured problems related to determining the level of maturity of software project processes in conditions of fuzziness. Models of the process of assessing process risks based on a qualitative presentation of expert data on the characteristics of the analyzed process are considered, as well as algorithms for fuzzy assessment of process risks based on building a fuzzy knowledge base formed by applying the provisions of the theory of fuzzy identification and fuzzy logic.

ratings included in the reference model .<...>The structure of the reference model 1.4.1.<...>The purpose of the reference model The reference model, according to the concept of the proposed approach, is necessary and intended<...>The structure of the reference process model To build a detailed structure of the reference process model, it is proposed<...>Project Life Cycle Processes Reference Model Software Life Cycle Processes Reference Model

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Model classification

The problem of classifying models, like any fairly complex phenomena and processes, is complex and multifaceted. The objective reason for this is that the researcher is only interested in one property (or several properties) of the system (object, process, phenomenon), for which the model was created to display. Therefore, the classification can be based on many different classification features: description method, functional purpose, degree of detail, structural properties, scope, etc.

Consider some of the most commonly used classes (types) of models (Table 1.4.1).

Table 1.4.1

Classification sign	Types of models
Model Essence	- material (physical) - ideal (imaginary) - informational (theoretical, abstract)
Characteristics of the simulation object	- appearance model - structure model - behavior model
Degree of formalization	- unformalized - partially formalized - formalized
Model purpose	- research: . descriptor. cognitive. conceptual. formal - educational - working: . optimization. managerial
Role in the management of the simulation object	- recording - reference - predictive - simulation - optimization
Time factor	- static - dynamic

Material(physical, real) models - models built by means of the material world to reflect its objects, processes.

Ideal(imaginary) models - models built by means of thinking on the basis of our consciousness.

Informational(abstract, theoretical) models - models built on one of the languages (sign systems) for encoding information.

material models are real, material constructions that serve to replace the original in a certain respect. The main requirement for the construction of this class of models is the requirement of similarity (similarity, analogy) between the model and the original. There are several types of similarity - geometric, physical, analogy, etc.

geometric similarity is the main requirement for the construction of geometric models, which are an object that is geometrically similar to its prototype and serves for demonstration purposes. Two geometric figures are similar if the ratio of all corresponding lengths and angles is the same. If the similarity coefficient is known - the scale, then by simply multiplying the dimensions of one figure by the scale value, the dimensions of the other figure are determined. In the general case, such a model demonstrates the principle of operation, the mutual arrangement of parts, the process of assembly and disassembly, the layout of the object and is intended to study properties that are invariant (independent) of the absolute values of the linear dimensions of the object. Examples of geometric models are: car models, mannequins, sculptures, prostheses, globes, etc. They depict the prototype not in all the variety of its properties, not in any qualitative boundaries, but within purely spatial ones. Here there is a similarity (similarity) not in general between things, but between special types of things - bodies. This is the limitation of this class of models. Note that a direct similarity is realized here.

physical likeness refers to the model and the original of the same physical nature and reflects their similarity in the similarity of the ratios of the physical variables of the same name at the corresponding spatio-temporal points. Two phenomena are physically similar if, according to the given characteristics of one, it is possible to obtain the characteristics of the other by simple recalculation, which is similar to the transition from one system of units of measurement to another. Geometric similarity is a special case of physical similarity. With physical similarity, the model and the original may be in more complex geometric relationships than linear proportionality, since the physical properties of the original are not proportional to its geometric dimensions. Here it is important that the space of physical variables of the model be similar to the space of physical variables of the original. In this case, the physical model in relation to the original is an analogy of the type of isomorphism (one-to-one correspondence). The central problem is the problem of correctly recalculating the results of a model experiment to the results of testing the original in real conditions. The similarity is based on the observance of certain physical criteria.

Ideal(imaginary) models are ideal constructions in our minds in the form of images or ideas about certain physical phenomena, processes, objects, systems (geometric point, infinity, etc.).

abstract(theoretical, informational) models - models representing modeling objects in a figurative or symbolic form.

Some hypothesis 1 about the properties of matter, assumptions about the behavior of a complex system under conditions of uncertainty, or a new theory about the structure of complex systems can serve as examples of abstract models.

On abstract models and on speculative analogy (similarity) between the model M and original S an abstract (theoretical) modeling is being built.

A striking representative of abstract and iconic modeling is a mathematical model.

Mathematical model– this is a set of mathematical formulas, equations, relationships, describing the properties of the modeling object that are of interest to the researcher.

Appropriate models can be used to study each aspect of modeling (type, structure, behavior) or their combination: appearance models, structure models, behavior patterns.

Appearance Model most often comes down to enumeration of the external features of the modeling object and is intended for identification (recognition) of the object.

Structure Model is a list of the constituent elements of the modeling object indicating the relationships between these elements and is intended for visual display, studying properties, identifying significant relationships, and studying the stability of the modeling object.

Behavior Model is a description of changes in the appearance and structure of the modeling object over time and as a result of interaction with other objects. The purpose of behavior models is to predict the future states of the modeling object, manage objects, establish links with other objects external to the modeling object.

Objectively, the levels of our ideas, the levels of our knowledge about various phenomena, processes, systems are different. This is reflected in the ways in which the phenomena under consideration are presented.

TO informal models can be attributed to mappings (images) obtained using various forms thinking: emotions, intuition, figurative thinking, subconsciousness, heuristics as a set of logical techniques and rules for finding the truth. In non-formalized modeling, the model is not formulated, but instead some fuzzy mental reflection (image) of reality is used, which serves as the basis for making a decision.

An example of indefinite (intuitive) ideas about an object is a fuzzy description of a situation based on experience and intuition.

TO formalized figurative models can be attributed to models, when models are built from any visual elements (elastic balls, fluid flows, trajectories of bodies, etc.).

Formalizable abstract models include sign models, including mathematical constructions, programming languages, natural languages, along with the rules for their transformation and interpretation.

According to their purpose, the models are designed to solve many problems:

research(descriptor, cognitive, conceptual, formal) models are designed to generate knowledge by studying the properties of an object;

educational models are designed to transfer knowledge about the object under study;

workers(optimization, management) models are designed to generate the right actions in the process of achieving the goal.

TO research models include semi-natural stands, physical models, mathematical models. Note that research models can act as training models if they are intended to transfer knowledge about the properties of an object. Examples of working models are: robot; autopilot; mathematical model of the object, built into the control or monitoring system; artificial heart, etc. At the same time, research and educational models should approach reality, and working models should reflect this reality. There is no clear boundary between these models. So, for example, a research model that adequately reflects the properties of an object can be used as a working one.

Research models are carriers of new knowledge, training models combine old knowledge with new ones.

Working models idealize the accumulated knowledge in the form of ideal actions to perform certain functions that it would be desirable to implement.

Descriptor Models- descriptive models, designed to establish the laws of change in the parameters of these processes and are implementations of descriptive and explanatory meaningful models at the formal level of modeling.

An example of such a model is a model of the motion of a material point under the action of applied forces, using Newton's second law. By setting the position and speed of the point at the initial moment of time (input values), the mass of the point (model parameter) and the law of change of applied forces (external influences), it is possible to determine the speed and coordinates of the point at any subsequent time moment (output values).

cognitive(mental, cognitive) models - models representing a certain mental image of the object, its ideal model in the head of the researcher, obtained as a result of observing the original object.

Forming such a model, the researcher, as a rule, seeks to answer specific questions, therefore, everything unnecessary is cut off from the infinitely complex structure of the object in order to obtain a more compact and concise description of it.

Cognitive models are subjective, as they are formed speculatively on the basis of all previous knowledge and experience of the researcher. One can get an idea of a cognitive model only by describing it in a symbolic form. The representation of a cognitive model in natural language is called content model .

Cognitive and content models are not equivalent, because the former may contain elements that the researcher cannot or does not want to formulate.

conceptual model It is customary to call a meaningful model, the formulation of which uses the concepts and representations of subject areas of knowledge involved in the study of the object of modeling.

In a broader sense, a conceptual model is understood as a meaningful model based on a particular concept or point of view.

formal model is a representation of a conceptual model using one or more formal languages (for example, mathematical theory languages, universal modeling language, or algorithmic languages).

In the humanities, the modeling process in many cases ends with the creation of a conceptual model of an object.

In the natural sciences and technical disciplines, as a rule, it is possible to construct a formal model.

Thus, cognitive, content and formal models constitute three interrelated levels of modeling.

Optimization Models- models designed to determine the optimal (best) parameters of the modeled object from the point of view of some criterion or to search for the optimal (best) control mode for some process.

As a rule, such models are built using one or more descriptive models and include some criterion that allows you to compare different options for sets of output values with each other in order to choose the best one. Restrictions in the form of equalities and inequalities associated with the features of the object or process under consideration can be imposed on the range of input parameters.

An example of an optimization model is the simulation of the process of launching a rocket from the Earth's surface in order to lift it to a given height in minimum time under restrictions on the magnitude of the engine impulse, the time of its operation, the initial and final mass of the rocket. Mathematical relations of the descriptive model of rocket motion act in this case in the form of constraints of the type of equalities.

Note that for most real processes, structures, it is required to determine the optimal parameters according to several criteria at once, i.e. we are dealing with so-called multiobjective optimization problems.

Management Models– models used to make effective managerial decisions in various areas of purposeful human activity.

In general, decision-making is a process comparable in complexity to the process of thinking in general. However, in practice, decision-making is usually understood as the choice of some alternatives from a given set of them, and the overall decision-making process is represented as a sequence of such choices of alternatives.

In contrast to optimization models, where the selection criterion is considered to be certain and the desired solution is established from the conditions of its extremity, in management models it is necessary to introduce specific optimality criteria that allow one to compare alternatives under various uncertainties of the problem. The type of optimality criterion in managerial models is not fixed in advance. This is the main feature of these models.

Recording Models are models designed to register properties and qualities of interest to the researcher that are not available for direct registration on the modeling object.

When solving control problems for complex dynamic objects, reference and predictive models are used, which are a formalized display of the desired characteristics of the control object for the purposes of current or future control of the object.

reference model is a model that describes in one form or another the desired (idealized) properties of the modeling (control) object.

Predictive Models– models designed to determine future states ( future behavior) of the simulation object.

simulation models- this is a set of descriptions of the elements of the system, the interconnections of elements with each other, external influences, algorithms for the functioning of the system (or rules for changing states) under the influence of external and internal disturbances.

Simulation models are created and used when the creation of a single model of a complex system is impossible or very difficult, the available mathematical methods do not allow obtaining satisfactory analytical or numerical solutions of the problems under consideration. But the presence of descriptions of elements and algorithms of functioning allows you to simulate the process of functioning of the system and produce measurements characteristics of interest.

It can also be noted that simulation models can be created for a much wider class of objects and processes than analytical and numerical models. In addition, since, as a rule, computing means (computers and other means) are used for implementation, universal or special algorithmic languages serve as means of a formalized description of simulation models.

Simulation modeling in the study of large (complex) systems

remains practically the only available method for obtaining information about the behavior of the system under conditions of uncertainty, which is especially important at the stage of its design. Using this method, you can choose the structure, parameters and control algorithms of the synthesized system, evaluate their effectiveness, and also simulate the behavior of the system under conditions that cannot be reproduced on a real prototype (for example, accidents, failures, emergencies, etc.). When, in simulation modeling, the behavior of a system is studied under the action of random factors, followed by statistical processing of information, it is advisable to use the static modeling method as a method of machine implementation of the simulation model. In this case, the method of statistical tests (Monte Carlo method) is considered as a numerical method for solving analytical problems.

A special class of models are cybernetic models that reflect the management aspects of the behavior of complex systems based on information exchange between its elements. The very physical nature of cybernetic models differs from the physical nature of the prototype and its elements. A feature of cybernetic models is the possible presence in them, in addition to the control mechanism, of mechanisms of self-organization, learning, adaptation, etc., and in more complex systems, artificial intelligence.

Taking into account the time factor in modeling leads to the use of static and dynamic models.

Static Models reflect the steady (equilibrium) modes of operation of the system;

Static modes of operation of elements, objects, systems are reflected in their static characteristics (linear, non-linear) and are described by the corresponding algebraic functional dependencies.

Dynamic Models reflect unsteady (non-equilibrium, transient) modes of operation of the system.

To describe non-equilibrium (transient) modes of operation of the system, differential equations or systems of differential equations are most often used.

Let us consider some properties of models that allow, to one degree or another, either to distinguish or identify the model with the original (object, process). It is customary to single out the following properties of models: adequacy, complexity, finiteness, truth, proximity.

Adequacy. Under adequacy Models are usually understood as the correct qualitative and quantitative description of an object (process) according to a selected set of characteristics with a certain reasonable degree of accuracy.

Adequacy is the most important requirement for a model; it requires the model to correspond to its real object (process, system, etc.) with respect to the selected set of its properties and characteristics. This means not adequacy in general, but adequacy in terms of those properties of the model that are essential for the researcher. Full adequacy means the identity between the model and the prototype.

A mathematical model can be adequate with respect to one class of situations (the state of the system + the state of the environment) and not adequate with respect to another. The use of an inadequate model can lead either to a significant distortion of the real process or properties (characteristics) of the object under study, or to the study of non-existent phenomena, properties and characteristics.

You can introduce the concept of the degree of adequacy, which will vary from 0 (lack of adequacy) to 1 (full adequacy). The degree of adequacy characterizes the proportion of the truth of the model with respect to the selected characteristic (property) of the object under study. We note that in some simple situations numerical assessment of the degree of adequacy is not particularly difficult. The difficulty in assessing the degree of adequacy in the general case arises from the ambiguity and fuzziness of the adequacy criteria themselves, as well as from the difficulty of choosing those features, properties and characteristics by which adequacy is assessed.

The concept of adequacy is a rational concept, therefore, increasing its degree should also be carried out at a rational level. The adequacy of the model must be checked, controlled, refined constantly in the process of research on particular examples, analogies, experiments, etc. As a result of the adequacy check, it is found out what the assumptions made lead to: either to an acceptable loss of accuracy, or to a loss of quality. When checking the adequacy, it is also possible to justify the validity of the application of the accepted working hypotheses in solving the problem or problem under consideration.

Simplicity and complexity. Simultaneous requirement of simplicity and adequacy of the model is contradictory. From the point of view of adequacy, complex models are preferable to simple ones. In complex models, it is possible to take into account a larger number of factors that affect the studied characteristics of objects. Although complex models more accurately reflect the simulated properties of the original, they are more cumbersome, hard to see and inconvenient to use. Therefore, the researcher seeks to simplify the model, since it is easier to operate with simple models. When striving to build a simple model, the basic model simplification principle:

the model can be simplified as long as the basic properties, characteristics and patterns inherent in the original are preserved.

This principle points to the limit of simplification.

At the same time, the concept of simplicity (or complexity) of a model is a relative concept. The model is considered quite simple if modern research tools (mathematical, informational, physical) make it possible to conduct a qualitative and quantitative analysis with the required accuracy. And since the possibilities of research tools are constantly growing, those tasks that were previously considered difficult can now be classified as simple.

A more difficult task is to ensure the simplicity / complexity of the model of a complex system consisting of separate subsystems connected to each other in a certain hierarchical and multiply connected structure. At the same time, each subsystem and each level has its own local criteria of complexity and adequacy, which are different from the global criteria of the system.

In order to reduce the loss of adequacy, it is more expedient to simplify the models:

1) at the physical level while maintaining the basic physical relationships,

2) at the structural level with the preservation of the main system properties.

Simplification of models at the mathematical level can lead to a significant loss of the degree of adequacy. For example, truncation of the high-order characteristic equation to the 2nd - 3rd order can lead to completely wrong conclusions about the dynamic properties of the system.

Note that more simple models are used in solving the synthesis problem, and more complex exact models are used in solving the analysis problem.

Finiteness of models. It is known that the world is infinite, like any object, not only in space and time, but also in its structure (structure), properties, relations with other objects. Infinity is manifested in the hierarchical structure of systems of different physical nature. However, when studying an object, the researcher is limited by the finite number of its properties, connections, resources used, etc. It is as if it “cuts out” some finite fragment from the infinite world in the form of a specific object, system, process, etc. and tries to cognize the infinite world through the final model of this fragment.

The finiteness of system models lies, firstly, in the fact that they reflect the original in a finite number of relations, i.e. with a finite number of connections with other objects, with a finite structure and a finite number of properties at a given level of study, research, description, available resources. Secondly, that the resources (information, financial, energy, time, technical, etc.) of modeling and our knowledge as intellectual resources are finite, and therefore objectively limit the possibilities of modeling and the very process of knowing the world through models. Therefore, the researcher (with rare exceptions) deals with finite-dimensional models.

The choice of model dimension (its degree of freedom, state variables) is closely related to the class of problems to be solved. An increase in the dimension of the model is associated with problems of complexity and adequacy. In this case, it is necessary to know what is the functional relationship between the degree of complexity and the dimension of the model. If this dependence is power-law, then the problem can be solved by using computer systems. If this dependence is exponential, then the “curse of dimensionality” (R. Kalman 1) is inevitable and it is almost impossible to get rid of it.

As noted above, an increase in the dimension of the model leads to an increase in the degree of adequacy and, at the same time, to the complication of the model. At the same time, the degree of complexity is limited by the possibility of operating with the model, i.e. the modeling tools available to the researcher. The need to move from a rough simple model to a more accurate one is realized by increasing the dimension of the model by involving new variables that are qualitatively different from the main ones and which were neglected when constructing a rough model. These variables can be assigned to one of the following three classes:

1) fast-flowing variables whose extent in time or space is so small that in a rough examination they were taken into account by their integral or averaged characteristics;

2) slow flowing variables whose extent of change is so great that in rough models they were considered constant;

3) small variables(small parameters), the values and influences of which on the main characteristics of the system are so small that they were ignored in rough models.

Note that the division of the complex motion of the system in terms of velocity into fast and slow motions makes it possible to study them in a rough approximation independently of each other, which simplifies the solution of the original problem. As for small variables, they are usually neglected when solving the synthesis problem, but they try to take into account their influence on the properties of the system when solving the analysis problem.

When modeling, they try to identify, if possible, a small number of main factors, the influence of which is of the same order and is not too difficult to describe mathematically, and the influence of other factors can be taken into account using averaged, integral, or "frozen" characteristics.

Approximation of models. It follows from the above that the finiteness and simplicity (simplification) of the model characterize quality difference (at a structural level) between the original and the model. Then the approximation of the model will characterize quantitative side of this difference.

It is possible to introduce a quantitative measure of approximation by comparing, for example, a rough model with a more accurate reference (complete, ideal) model or with a real model. Approximation of the model to the original inevitable, exists objectively, since the model as another object reflects only individual properties of the original. Therefore, the degree of approximation (proximity, accuracy) of the model to the original is determined by the formulation of the problem, the purpose of modeling.

An excessive desire for increased accuracy of the model leads to its significant complication, and, consequently, to a decrease in its practical value. Therefore, apparently, the principle of L. Zadeh 1 is true that when modeling complex (man-machine, organizational) systems, accuracy and practical meaning are incompatible and exclude each other. The reason for the inconsistency and incompatibility of the requirements for accuracy and practicality of the model lies in the uncertainty and fuzziness of knowledge about the original itself - its behavior, its properties and characteristics, about the behavior of the environment, about the mechanisms for forming the goal, ways and means to achieve it, etc.

The truth of the models. Each model has a grain of truth, i.e. any model in some way correctly reflects the original. The degree of truth of the model is revealed only by its practical comparison with the original, because only

practice is the criterion of truth.

On the one hand, any model contains unconditionally true, i.e. definitely known and correct. On the other hand, the model also contains conditionally true, i.e. true only under certain conditions. A typical modeling error is that researchers use certain models without checking their truth conditions, the limits of their applicability. This approach obviously leads to incorrect results.

Note that any model also contains the supposedly true (plausible), i.e. something that can be either true or false under conditions of uncertainty. Only in practice is the actual relationship between true and false in specific conditions established. Thus, when analyzing the truth level of the model, it is necessary to find out:

1) accurate, reliable knowledge;

2) knowledge that is reliable under certain conditions;

3) knowledge estimated with some degree of uncertainty;

4) knowledge that cannot be assessed even with some degree of uncertainty;

5) ignorance, i.e. what is unknown.

Thus, assessing the truth of a model as a form of knowledge comes down to identifying the content in it of both objective, reliable knowledge that correctly reflects the original, and knowledge that approximately evaluates the original, as well as what constitutes ignorance.

To coordinate the operation of network devices from different manufacturers, ensuring the interaction of networks that use a different signal propagation medium, a reference model for the interaction of open systems (OSI) has been created. The reference model is built on a hierarchical basis. Each layer provides a service to a higher layer and uses the services of a lower layer.

Data processing starts from the application layer. After that, the data passes through all layers of the reference model, and through the physical layer is sent to the communication channel. At the reception, the reverse processing of the data takes place.

The OSI reference model introduces two concepts: protocol And interface.

A protocol is a set of rules on the basis of which the layers of various open systems interact.

An interface is a set of means and methods of interaction between elements of an open system.

The protocol defines the rules for the interaction of modules of the same level in different nodes, and the interface determines the rules for the interaction of modules of neighboring levels in the same node.

There are seven layers of the OSI reference model in total. It is worth noting that real stacks use fewer levels. For example, the popular TCP/IP uses only four layers. Why is that? We'll explain a little later. Now let's look at each of the seven levels separately.

Layers of the OSI model:

physical level. Defines the type of data transmission medium, physical and electrical characteristics interfaces, signal type. This layer deals with bits of information. Examples of physical layer protocols: Ethernet, ISDN, Wi-Fi.
channel level. Responsible for access to the transmission medium, error correction, reliable data transmission. At the reception The data received from the physical layer is packed into frames, after which their integrity is checked. If there are no errors, then the data is transferred to the network layer. If there are errors, the frame is discarded and a retransmission request is generated. The link layer is divided into two sublayers: MAC (Media Access Control) and LLC (Local Link Control). The MAC regulates access to the shared physical medium. LLC provides network layer service. Switches work at the link layer. Protocol examples: Ethernet, PPP.
network layer. Its main tasks are routing - determining the optimal path for data transmission, logical addressing of nodes. In addition, network troubleshooting tasks (ICMP protocol) can be assigned to this level. The network layer deals with packets. Protocol examples: IP, ICMP, IGMP, BGP, OSPF).
transport layer. Designed to deliver data without errors, loss and duplication in the order in which they were transmitted. Performs end-to-end control of data transfer from the sender to the recipient. Protocol examples: TCP, UDP.
session level. Manages the creation/maintenance/termination of a communication session. Protocol examples: L2TP, RTCP.
Executive level. Performs data transformation into the desired form, encryption/encoding, compression.
Application level. Carries out the interaction between the user and the network. Interacts with client-side applications. Protocol examples: HTTP, FTP, Telnet, SSH, SNMP.

After getting acquainted with the reference model, we will consider the TCP / IP protocol stack.

The TCP/IP model defines four layers. As you can see from the figure above, one TCP / IP layer can correspond to several layers of the OSI model.

Layers of the TCP/IP model:

Network interface layer. Corresponds to the two lower layers of the OSI model: link and physical. Based on this, it is clear that this level determines the characteristics of the transmission medium (twisted pair, optical fiber, radio air), the type of signal, the encoding method, access to the transmission medium, error correction, physical addressing (MAC addresses). In the TCP / IP model, the Ethrnet protocol and its derivatives (Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet) operate at this level.
Interworking layer. Corresponds to the network layer of the OSI model. Takes over all its functions: routing, logical addressing (IP addresses). The IP protocol operates at this level.
transport layer. Corresponds to the transport layer of the OSI model. Responsible for delivering packets from source to destination. On given level Two protocols are involved: TCP and UDP. TCP is more reliable than UDP by making pre-connection requests for retransmission when errors occur. However, at the same time, TCP is slower than UDP.
Application level. Its main task is to interact with applications and processes on hosts. Protocol examples: HTTP, FTP, POP3, SNMP, NTP, DNS, DHCP.

Encapsulation is a method of packing a data packet, in which the service headers of the packet, independent of each other, are abstracted from the headers of lower levels by including them in higher levels.

Let's look at a specific example. Suppose we want to get from the computer to the site. To do this, our computer must prepare an http request to receive the resources of the web server on which the page of the site we need is stored. At the application layer, an HTTP header is added to the data (Data) of the browser. Further, at the transport level, a TCP header is added to our packet, containing the port numbers of the sender and recipient (port 80 for HTTP). At the network level, an IP header is formed containing the IP addresses of the sender and recipient. Immediately before transmission, an Ethernet header is added at the data link layer, which contains the physical (MAC addresses) of the sender and recipient. After all these procedures, the packet in the form of bits of information is transmitted over the network. On admission, the process is reversed. The web server at each level will check the corresponding header. If the check is successful, then the header is discarded and the packet goes to the upper level. Otherwise, the entire packet is dropped.

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